Time Urgency for Arrival to Work

            Another important factor in the stress-strain relationship has to do with time urgency. It appears self-evident that the strain of having to be at work at a particular time five to six days per week, during rush hour, is inherently more stressful than having a variable arrival time in which the traveling can be done at non-peak hours. Within the context of organizational behavior, the time variable can be considered an important part of the culture of an organization (Schribner & Gutek, 1987). Is a worker expected to be at his or her work station at precisely 8:00 am or 9:00 am? Does a traffic delay on the morning route become rationalized as “company” time?   According to Koslowsky and colleagues (1995), time urgency is one of the most critical moderator variables in a commuting model. This is because it interacts with both physical and subjective impedance.

Cognitive Style and Personality

            Another important factor in the stress-strain relationship for commuters is the coping style that the commuter brings to his or her experience on the road. Catastrophic thinking such as “If I’m late for work, I will lose my job and be destitute” actually increases the strain of objective stressors (such as high impedance commuting). This premise is based on the extensive cognitive therapy literature which consistently yields research results that relate patterns of thinking to the experience of stress and anxiety (Beck, Emery, & Greenberg, 1985; Beck, Rush, Shaw, & Emery, 1979; Meichenbaum & Cameron, 1983). According to cognitive theory, various personality styles are characterized by a propensity to certain patterns of dysfunctional or exaggerated thinking about the various stressors of life. By viewing the commuting experience in the light of cognitive theory, it seems reasonable that personality and cognitive style are likely to be major factors in how a commuter perceives and interprets the objective impedance of traffic difficulties.

            The subjective aspect of time urgency is increased if a commuter perceives the congestion delaying him or her from arriving at work on time as a major frustration. In a study of traffic congestion, Type A behavior, and stress, Stokols and colleagues (1978) found that subjective reports of traffic congestion and annoyance were greater among high and medium impedance commuters than low impedance commuters. Commuting time was significantly correlated with systolic and diastolic blood pressure. But contrary to their predictions, non type A personalities (Type B) who experienced high-impedance exhibited the highest levels of systolic blood pressure and the lowest levels of frustration along with medium-impedance type A commuters (Stokols et al., 1978). Results such as these point to the complexity of commuting stress, especially with respect to physiological responses and personality. It can also be observed that time urgency in its subjective aspects is very likely to be influenced by cognitive style and personality variables.

Noise and Crowding

            Research on the effects of noise on commuters supports the contention that only the onset of noise is disruptive as a stressor (Poulton, 1979). Under this view, some form of adaptation takes place and the negative characteristics dissipate (Cohen & Weinstein, 1982). These results highlight the importance of intermittent noise that is so common to commuters. Koslowsky (1995) emphasizes two negative consequences from the literature. The first is learned helplessness resulting from the limited control of the driver (Cohen & Weinstein, 1982; Seligman, 1975). The second is cognitive fatigue (Cohen, 1978). Intermittent noise appears to cause strain for the commuter because of both actual and perceived lack of control (Koslowsky et al., 1995). Vehicle and traffic noise cause strain because they are unlike the pleasant noise of a radio or stereo which is subject to driver control.

            More relevant to the commuter’s home experience are studies on the aftereffects of noise and the effects on the commuter’s relationships with others. Koslowsky (1995) emphasizes the results of one study in which the cessation of unpredictable noise of 58 dB or 108 dB resulted in drops in frustration tolerance. Similarly, Cohen and Weinstein (1982) summarize a group of studies in which insensitivity to others may be a possible effect of noise. Noise has been implicated in reducing compliance to requests for verbal aid and for reducing offers of assistance (Page, 1977; Sherrod & Downs, 1974). Thus, it is reasonable to suppose that noise may effect parenting behavior in the evening, particularly responsiveness to overtures and requests of young adolescents.

            While noise is not the only environmental variable effecting the commuter, the literature seems to suggest that it is probably the most salient when compared to other variables such as temperature, tranquillity of environment, and lighting. Crowding in the commuter experience, however, is worthy of consideration along with noise as a salient factor or variable in the stress-strain relationship.   In one sense, crowding can be viewed as simply an aspect of commute impedance or traffic congestion. But some research suggests that crowding has effects on the commuter that spread to the time both before and after the actual travel time.   The anticipation of crowding has been shown to influence a person psychologically and physiologically (Baum & Greenberg, 1975). The aftereffect of crowding appears to exert influence for several minutes and perhaps a few hours after the crowding experience has ceased (Karlin, Rosen, Epstein, & Woolfolk, 1979). These studies of crowding in non-commuting contexts have clear implications for the effects of traffic congestion on commuters: the strain of the traffic congestion can persist at home following the commute from work and the strain of anticipated traffic congestion can be a variable in the home relationships prior to leaving for work (Koslowsky et al., 1995). For example, the anticipatory anxiety prior to engaging in a dreaded commute can cause a parent to communicate with family members in a tense manner.